Introduction

Since the beginning of human history, people have relied on goats for both their milk and their meat. Goats have numerous characteristics that are advantageous to smaller communities, including as cheap production costs, minimal feed needs, short generation intervals and the ability to provide a steady supply of tiny volumes of milk that is suited for immediate use in households. There were around 78.2 million goats residing in Pakistan as of the year 2020¹. The production of goats and goat milk is an industry that is expanding rapidly and is now recognized as an important commercial item in a variety of nations. According to Garcia et al. ², between 1991 and 2011, the output of goats expanded by 55 to 70 percent, suggesting that there is a significant demand for goats, goat milk, and the goods made from goat’s milk. The growth of the goat farming industry over the last ten years is probably attributable to the goat’s capacity to offer food for humans despite a wide variety of climatic circumstances and its resilience in the face of an unpredictable and severe environment³.

The output of goat milk throughout the world is increasing, and the vast majority of goat milk is either consumed fresh or processed into products like cheese and yoghurt etc. The feeding of newborns traditionally consisted of goat milk that had not been altered in any way. Goat milk products have traditionally been utilized in several areas of the world⁴. These products have a lot of noteworthy qualities, including their levels of leanness smells, flavour and taste; in addition, these items have a highly particular composition of proteins, lipids, fatty acids and amino acids⁵. Goat milk, like cow milk, has an average of 3.4 percent protein, 3.8 percent fat, 4.1 percent lactose, and 0.8 percent ash content. This means that the primary nutritional composition of goat milk is equivalent to the major nutrient composition of cow milk. In addition, goat milk has a high concentration of medium chain fatty acids, which help give goat milk its distinctively “goaty” flavour⁶. These fatty acids may be found in C10:0, C8:0 and C6:0. The antimicrobial and antiviral properties as well as the ability to suppress cholesterol formation and dissolve cholesterol deposits are all attributed to medium chain fatty acids. Additionally, with regard to goat milk’s nutritious qualities and its lower allergenicity as compared to cow milk, it is presently one of the most popular health-conscious consumer products in developed countries^7,8. There are several possibilities for the manufacture of novel dairy functional beverages using milk that has special nutritional qualities, either alone or in conjunction with bacterial strains that have probiotic capabilities and may produce physiologically active metabolites. The current study sheds light on effects of climatic conditions of industrial food quality products. Their mechanism must be addressed in order to prevent people from tasteless things.

Animal performance is affected by climatic factors such as air temperature, sun radiation, minimum relative humidity, air movement, and the interplay between these factors (Figure 1). It has been clear in the last several decades that various factors including breed of cow, nutrition and feeding techniques, management system, parity, and overall health of the animal all have an effect on the quality of the milk and its composition. 

Figure 1: Direct and indirect factors affecting on produced goat milk. This figure has been reproduced for the present manuscript. Click here to view Figure

In most cases, quality of milk compounds is the consequence of the intricate interactions of a number of different factors. These are not set in stone, and they are subject to change depending on the season, the state of the ecosystem, and the climatic fluctuation⁹. Researcher showed with the amount of milk fat during the summer months being on average 0.3 percentage units lower than the amount of milk fat during the winter months. When the temperature is altered, these percentages fluctuate significantly. In addition, it is well knowledge that the proportion of protein found in goat’s milk increases throughout the autumn and winter months compared to the spring and summer months, and that the amounts of all minerals found in milk are strongly impacted by the changing of the seasons. Extremes in humidity and temperature are likely to be responsible for the wide range of fluctuation seen in cow milk ingredient percentages¹⁰. The amount of data available on how various elements, such as temperature and humidity, impact the content of goat milk is quite limited. In addition, there has been relatively little study done on the changes in taste and colour that occur in goat milk byproducts, despite the fact that these changes are very common and hazardous to one’s health¹¹. The scientist Clark et al ¹² have looked at how changes in temperature and precipitation affect the chemical make-up of goat’s milk throughout the year that is to be limited. Similarly, seasonal changes in the amount of fat found in goat milk are not well known and need to be studied on priority basis. The effects of increasing stimulus temperature on the sweetness, sourness, saltiness, and bitterness of flavours are just one part of a comprehensive study of thermal effects on flavour. In this chapter, we take a look at what’s already been written on climate change’s effects on most of the aforementioned channels, and we make some suggestions for future studies.

Overview about climatic conditions

Pakistan’s yearly mean temperature has increased by about 0.5°C over the preceding 50 years. In the preceding 30 years, the number of days with a heat wave every year has increased by around a factor of five. Annual precipitation has traditionally showed great fluctuation but has somewhat risen in the previous 50 years¹². Over the past century, the sea level around the coast of Karachi has risen by about 10 millimetres. By the end of this century, the annual mean temperature in Pakistan is anticipated to increase by 3 °C to 5 °C under a center global emissions scenario, while greater global emissions may give a rise of 4 °C to 6 °C. Average annual rainfall is not projected to have a major long-term trend, but is likely to have high inter-annual variability¹³. Temperature and precipitation patterns in the tropics of Southeast Asia are classified as tropical savannahs based on the seasonality of monthly air temperatures and rainfall (Aw). The change in temperature also leads to reduction in bushes per acre (Figure 2) that indirectly affect the industrial food products. The temperature and humidity index (THI) is currently 10 degrees higher than it was 30 years ago because of the effects of global warming. Annually, the THI in the central region of Thailand is currently around 85. As a result of Thailand’s consistently high ambient temperature (Ta) throughout the year, the country’s THI is currently quite high. Intriguingly, the temperature difference between the hottest and coldest Ta of the day is more than 10°C. The temperature may have a direct effect on the function of the mammary glands, as evidenced by the Ta difference (Ta-diff). By 2050, it is expected to be the world’s fifth most populated nation, growing at a 2 % yearly average pace. By mainstreaming climate change into economically and socially sensitive sectors, this policy aims to achieve climate-resilient development for Pakistan and help it become more environmentally and socially sustainable. But these policies are stopped due to certain reasons¹⁴.

Figure 2: Effect of various diseases on yield business with respect to time. Click here to view Figure

Source: USGCRP (2009)

Climate change effects on goat milk products

People may believe they can taste the consequences of climate change. You could practically taste the impacts of global warming. According to an Australian study, food may taste different as a consequence of increasing temperatures brought on by human-caused greenhouse gas emissions¹⁵. After years of heat waves, wildfires, and drought caused by record temperatures, this is the most awful news for Australia and a terrifying warning for the rest of the globe. According to Richard Eckard University of Melbourne, Australian farmers have always faced a very unpredictable climate, but climate change has added substantial extra complexity to their management. He said that “heat and drought are likely to affect the quality of grain, wine, vegetable, fruit, and other crops.” According to the study, a lengthy list of grocery store essentials will be affected by temperature increases of up to 1.6 degrees Celsius (2.9 degrees Fahrenheit) by 2030 and up to 5 degrees Celsius (9 degrees Fahrenheit) by 2070 (relative to the average temperature of 1980-1999). Carrots’ texture and flavour may deteriorate, kale’s flavour may worsen, eggplants’ shape may deteriorate, and canola oil’s nutritional content may plummet by nearly a fourth¹⁶. Many other crops, including as raspberries, lemons, beets, potatoes, lentils, and chickpeas, might see decreased yields, increased disease, or limited blooming. Foods such as meat and fish may also be harmed. Raising more heat-tolerant cattle, which produce lesser quality meat, might become necessary due to increasing temperatures. There is a good chance that milk produced by dairy cows would be of worse quality and quantity, with the latter dropping by as much as 40 %. Higher ocean temperatures may lead to a drop in certain octopus’ species and the “disappearance of Southern scallops from our plates” due to heat stress in pigs and hens¹⁷. Preliminary research suggests that food costs would increase and part of what we eat may be less nutritious in a warmer world. In a warmer future, however, not everything on the farm will be affected. There will be more variety in olives and mangoes and eggplant will be able to thrive in regions where they are now too cold to grow. These are just a few of the findings in the paper. Several farmers are quoted in the paper as saying they are concerned about the warming trend¹⁵. “Is it time to confront climate change? If we don’t, our future will be bleak “According to winemaker David Bruer, “My children’s well-being is something I take very seriously¹⁸. I’m simply curious about their future.” Dairy farmer Lynne Strong cites climate change as a major source of stress. “Access to a wide range of healthy foods will become more difficult unless we all work together to bring down global warming. The truth is this:

In hot, dry conditions, beets and carrots don’t grow properly. Carrots will have less taste and texture, while beets will have fewer colors to look forward to. Potatoes are more susceptible to blight, a horrible rotting disease, in humid climates. Meat isn’t exempt from the effects of a heat wave. Increasing temperatures may be just as stressful for animals as they are for people, and they don’t always have a cool place to go. As a result of their inability to consume as much or gain as much weight as the temperature rises, hens tend to produce meat that is rougher and stringier. Speaking about meat, grains are a major component of the diets of many animals. Increasing temperatures and droughts may cause wheat and other crops to be stunted, raising the cost of grain and the livestock that consume it. In the dairy area, the most dramatic alterations were seen. The quantity of milk that cows produce may be reduced by 10 to 25 percent during heat waves, and by up to 40 percent in severe circumstances, according to the study’s findings¹⁹.

Figure 3: Classification of some important proteins. This figure has been regenerated for the current manuscript. Click here to view Figure

The Maillard reaction, a non-enzymatic browning process involving amine groups of free amino acids (peptides or proteins) and reactive carbonyl groups of reducing sugars, may be brought on by thermal processing and/or food storage conditions. Volatile sulphur compounds have a significant role in the taste and off-flavor characteristics of many foods. There are a number of measuring difficulties that might arise when dealing with sulfur-containing flavour volatiles because of their low sensory detection thresholds, low concentration, and chemical labile nature. Analytical separation methods and instruments have made it possible to better comprehend their occurrence and contribute to their sensory importance⁴⁰. Pras et al. ⁵ discovered that sulfur-containing scent compounds may be found in a wide range of food and beverage products. Sulfur compounds in food tastes have been the focus of numerous recent studies.

Goat milk processing

Fluid goat milk is processed in a manner comparable to that of cow milk in terms of the fundamentals. Receiving, processing, standardizing and pasteurizing goat milk are the most common methods employed in the industry. Because goat milk has fewer fat globules than cow milk, it doesn’t need to be homogenized because it’s naturally homogenized. All of the undesired materials, including as sediments and certain types of microorganisms, are removed from the milk after its collection from an individual cow or bulk tank or milk transportation vehicle. Excess contaminants are removed from milk using the clarifier process⁴¹, which involves spreading the milk thinly over conical discs and rotating them at a high speed. An innovative centrifugal force machine called Bactofuge has been designed to achieve a high level of bacterial disinfection. It is possible to pasteurize food at a low temperature for a long period (65 °C, 30 minutes); a high temperature for a short time (72-75 °C, 25 s); or an ultra-high temperature depending on the time and temperature relationship⁴². In order to prevent human brucellosis (a disease of various organs), which is commonly transmitted by unpasteurized goat milk and its cheese, pasteurization is essential⁴.

Immediately after pasteurization and cooling the milk, the product is bottled, packed, and sold in paper or plastic cartons. It is then delivered to retail and other establishments in refrigerated vehicles. Because goat milk cream is seldom sold commercially, the method of separating it from the rest of the milk is purely discretionary. Standardizing milk fat and making butter and other dairy products are two key goals of cream separation. When skim milk and whole milk are separated, fat-in-water emulsions are formed that are boosted with milk fat that has been heated to industry standards.

Common products and climatic variations

Processing of goat milk cheese

Goat milk that is devoid of visible contaminants, strange odours or tastes, foreign substances and harmful bacteria and has a desired acidity (pH 6.2-6.55) is the first stage in creating cheese. In addition, the bacteria in the cheese starting culture must be able to live and reproduce in the milk. The following are the nine primary steps in the production of farmhouse goat milk cheese: Filtering the milk, renneting it, coagulating it, placing the curds in cheese moulds, draining, unmolding, salting, drying, and ripening are all steps in the cheese-making process. Due to variances in milk quantity, manufacturing techniques, and maturing time and conditions in different goat cheese-producing countries, a vast variety of caprine cheeses may be produced. Despite these differences, the basic cheese-making methods remain the same.

Climatic effects on goat milk cheese production and processing

Conditions that encourage the die-off of starter bacteria prior to lactose usage pave the door for the creation of off-flavors such as sour flavour. Formic acid, ethanol, and acetic acid are byproducts of lactose Heterofermentative by nonstarter bacteria⁴³. Cheddar cheese’s taste profile may be tainted by an overabundance of certain components. Microflora activity may be effectively controlled by rapidly chilling cheese blocks to ripening temperatures, which encourages homo fermentative metabolism. Researchers Ruvalcaba-Gómez et al. ⁴⁴ observed that the temperature at which the cheese was ripened had the greatest impact on the strength of the cheese’s taste. Higher ripening temperatures may speed up the development of cheese taste flaws and uneven cooling of Cheddar blocks placed on pallets, according to their findings. These blocks are still heated after pressing and act as an insulator for the pallet’s inside. In a 1969 assessment of Cheddar cheese producers, it was found that the lack of control in the chilling phase after pressing process was responsible for significant lot variance. In the end, this might cause a variety of taste problems⁴⁵. 30 to 40 percent of all American Cheddar cheese has been rated by experienced cheese graders as having a high acidity (sour) and bitterness (aged cheese) in off-flavor⁴⁶. Four pressing and chilling procedures were tested by Miah et al. ⁴⁷ to see how they affected the taste flaws. They discovered that slower cooling speeds were related with a greater occurrence of off-flavors. The influence of ripening temperature (6 and 13 ^oC) on taste preference was investigated by Aston et al. ⁴⁸. They came to the conclusion that lower preference ratings were connected with longer durations of higher temperature ripening. It was determined that poor liking ratings were due to the presence of overpowering off tastes. A temperature gradient develops inside the cheese block as it cools. There are several factors that influence the pace of cooling of a cheese block, including the temperature profile at each location. The combination of impacts at the different temperatures in the profile will have an impact on the sensory features of the product. As stated, the goal of this research was to determine and quantify the impact of varying cooling temperatures (between 5 °C and 35 °C) on sensory qualities.

Processing of goat milk yogurt

In terms of manufacturing technique, the following is a list of goat milk yoghurt products. Set yoghurt is made by incubating milk with a starter culture in the final packing, resulting in a hard gel. Compared to set-type yoghurt, stirred-type yoghurt has a somewhat softer texture. Cullum is stirred and packed while incubation for this sample. In order to make it less acidic and have a creamier consistency, yoghurt is strained or concentrated. Recombined dairy components such as different milk powder and anhydrous milk fat, salt (optional), and stabiliser may be used to make yoghurt with a total solids content of roughly 26/100 g.

Effects of climate on goat milk yogurt

According to the denaturation data, morphological damage occurred after 30 minutes of treatment at 85 °C. The denaturation degree, particle size, surface hydrophobicity, and microstructure of WP from goat milk after heat treatment were shown to have a significant impact on the functional attributes of WP after heat treatment. Increases in particle size, turbidity, zeta potential, and surface hydrophobicity of WP from heating goat milk at 65 °C for 30 min and 85 °C for 15 s assured that WP had strong emulsifying activity, water-holding capacities for oils and foaming capacities for foams, as well as a good foam stability⁴⁹. Results by Ibrahim et al. ⁵⁰ showed that even a 1 ^oC temperature change may have a major impact on goat and cow milk processing products including yogurt. Secondary structure was less affected by low temperature, long duration treatment than by ultra-high temperature treatment, and the number of regular structures reduced progressively with time. Research still needed in order to better understand the climatic variations on different food products including all types of yoghurt etc.

Effects of climate on goat milk proteins

High ambient temperatures (HTa) may cause heat stress in dairy cattle and goats. Dairy cows and goats suffer from reduced food intake and milk production as a result of this physiological condition. However, our dairy goats show a greater milk protein level in the summer. The lactation performance of both dairy cows and goats declined over the summer months. One fascinating notion is based on findings that dairy goats raised in Thailand’s tropical areas during the summer had a greater degree of heat stress than those raised in the winter. This hypothesis asks if the main constituents of summer milk vary from those of winter milk. Milk protein concentrations were greater in summer than winter, but not lactose or fat concentrations, according to an examination of key goat milk components. In contrast to prior results, HTa’s impact on milk protein has been shown to be negative. This mismatch may be because to the amount and length of HTa exposure that is usual throughout the year in the present tropical area’s existing state of affairs. The impact of HTa seems to be particular, since lactose concentrations were not affected by HTa in both in vitro and vivo tests. Similarly, HTa failed to alter the protein expression of beta-galactosy ltransferase or alpha-lactalbumin, both of which are necessary for lactose synthase function⁵¹. A study by Prasanpanich et al. ⁵² suggests that heat-stressed cows produce milk with greater protein content. The protein level of grazed cows under heat stress circumstances and indoor cows were 3.2 and 2.9 percent, respectively ⁵³.

When compared to other forms of protein, the protein found in milk is often regarded as having superior nutritional value. Not only does an in-depth knowledge of the natural elements that may influence the milk protein subcomponent (i.e., casein) satisfy the knowledge of protein synthesis, but it also provides the prospective notion to enhance the overall quality of milk. The added value of milk from this location may be determined by the degree to which its protein composition differs from that of milk produced by dairy cows and goats fed in tropical climates. Dairy cows and goats are considered to be in the heat stress stage when exposed to high ambient temperatures for an extended period of time. This physiological condition has a detrimental impact on dairy cows and goats, namely with regard to their ability to consume food and produce milk. On the other hand, it has been shown that during the summer months, dairy goats in our condition produce milk with greater protein content. In a similar vein, a rise in heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) gene expression from mammary epithelial cells derived from either in vivo (summer and winter seasons) or in vitro circumstances supports the direct influence of HTa on the mammary gland and perhaps on milk protein synthesis⁵⁴. The scientist determined that Hsp70 has an intracellular influence on milk protein synthesis, namely in relation to the transit of proteins between the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus, as well as with the subcomponent of the casein micelle⁵⁵.

Conclusion and prospects

The existing evidence suggests that temperature can significantly affect how we experience flavour. As a result of the anticipated complex interactions between these components, determining their relative importance is difficult. In light of this, future research should investigate the interplay of these elements from a number of angles and depths. There are a number of questions that have yet to be answered empirically in relation to the prospective impact of high ambient temperatures on the sense of flavour: The psychological impact of consuming food in exceptionally warm (or cold) situations, for example, does desired serving temperature change inversely with the ambient temperature? In what ways, if any at all, does a food’s perceived temperature differ from its actual serving temperature (for example, are there contrast or absorption effects) because of the temperature of the environment? To what extent does acclimatization alter taste preferences (i.e., should alternative meals and drinks be offered before vs after acclimatization)?

Most of these problems can only be answered by conducting tests in which the temperature of the surrounding environment is regulated (for example, in an environmental chamber). Because only a small number of researchers are able to carry out tests under controlled climate conditions (or even on site in harsh situations), theories produced in basic psychophysical investigations must finally be validated in real-world settings. Locally produced goat milk’s nutritional data can be compared to that from other regions of the world. In addition, milk’s quality can be assessed to determine how best to increase the benefits it already offers. That’s why it’s important for us to find out what, if anything, could be in goat milk from all over the world.

Acknowledgment

The authors would like to thank Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan, for their moral support.

Conflict of interest

Authors declared no conflict of interest.

Funding Sources

The present study was not funded by any agency or institute.

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